The short answer is, EDCs are in almost everything we come into contact with on a daily basis.

Approximately 1,000 chemicals have been identified as EDCs, including–

• Pesticides such as DDT, atrazine, vinclozolin, and chlorpyrifos
• Plastics and plasticisers (materials used to make plastics softer and more pliable) such as BPA, BPS, BPF and phthalates
• Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), the main substance behind non-stick cookware, food packaging, and textiles
• Flame retardants such as PBDEs and other brominated flame retardants
• Heavy metals such as lead and calcium

In food, pesticides (a source of EDCs) are added to produce. Livestock munch on crops that have had pesticides added to them. The food, after processing, is then packaged in plastic packaging that may contain BPA, phthalates, and PFAS. Perhaps, once bought from the supermarket, they are then cut on a plastic chopping board and cooked in a non-stick pan.

When we take a shower or when people apply makeup, perfume, or do their nails, we commonly encounter or use products laced with PFAS, phthalates, parabens, and triclosan, which may be listed individually on the label or hidden under the category of “fragrance.”

PFAS can also appear in activewear or outdoor wear, as it can make clothing waterproof or stain-resistant. Though some prominent clothing brands have begun phasing out PFAS in their products, many others still use PFAS today.

Around the house, flame retardants, PFAS, and phthalates are commonly found in building materials and consumer products, such as artificial turf, carpets, flooring, cabinets, insulation, furniture foam, computers, and other electronics. EDCs can migrate or leak from these sources into dust. People are then exposed by inhaling dust. A study on dust content showed that indoor dust consistently contains chemicals from multiple classes. Phthalates were present at the highest concentrations, followed by phenols, RFRs, fragrances, and PFASs.

Because of modern consumption habits, most people have multiple types of EDCs detectable in their body. According to data acquired by the NEJM, US-based studies have measured approximately 40 chemicals in participants’ urine and blood, including samples obtained during pregnancy.

Those who are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of EDCs are foetuses (exposure in utero during pregnancy), babies, young children and pregnant women.

EDCs were also ubiquitously found in urine samples in the participants of several Chinese studies. Interestingly, EDC urine levels were found to be two times higher in large (first-tier) cities in China compared to second-tier cities; the smaller the cities were, the lower the urine EDC concentration.¹

Let us examine the major groups of EDCs in more detail.

This is a group consisting of over 15,000 individual chemicals. It is known as a “forever chemical” due to its chemical structure being extremely difficult to break down. It is found in consumer products such as nonstick cookware, stain-resistant clothing, building materials (e.g., stain-resistant carpeting), personal care products (e.g., cosmetics, menstrual products), food packaging materials, drinking water and from industrial sources.

As PFAS are difficult to break down, once these household items containing PFAS are discarded, PFAS leak into the environment, into the sea, and return once again through tap water. It is estimated that the percentage of PFAS in drinking water is 45-79% worldwide.

From the available data that we have, PFAS are likely to cause decreased infant and foetal growth, dyslipidaemia, and decreased antibody response to vaccines in children and adults. It is also suspected to be linked to kidney cancer, testicular and breast cancer, gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia, thyroid disease and dysfunction.²

The Water Supplies Department in Hong Kong has noted low levels of PFAS in local tap water. Their website notes that “the latest monitoring results of drinking water samples in Hong Kong for two of the most common PFAS, namely perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), showed average values of <4 nanograms per liter, which are far below the standards established by [most] countries”.³ However, it is important to note that, understandably, not all of the 15,000+ PFAS chemicals are tested and usually only 20 or so PFAS subtypes, the “PFAS 20”, are commonly tested.

There is no current legislation on PFAS usage in consumer products in Hong Kong. The city has become “plastic-free” in a bid to reduce plastic waste in food packaging containers; however, many of these paper containers contain a “water-proof” or “grease-proof” layer of PFAS in them. In a government press release discussion on PFAS in non-plastic packaging containers in 2024, PFAS was tested in food packaging containers and the results found “of the 119 samples tested, 64 were found to contain these substances. The food packaging materials concerned include plant fibre food containers, cardboard boxes for greasy food and grease-resistant paper bags, etc.” ⁴

Reducing PFAS exposure can be done by personal lifestyle changes such as reducing the use of takeaway containers, or transferring food to glass/stainless steel containers once bought, and avoiding reheating food in takeaway containers. To reduce PFAS exposure through water, filtration of drinking water is recommended.⁵ It is also advisable to consider switching out non-stick cookware or PFAS-lined clothing (such as active-wear) for non-PFAS alternatives.

Phthalates are a group of dozens of chemical compounds developed in the last century that are used to make plastics more durable. Phthalates also function as solvents and stabilisers in perfumes and other fragrance preparations to make scents in essential oils or fragrances last longer. Cosmetics that may contain phthalates include nail polishes, hair sprays, aftershave lotions, cleansers, and shampoos.

Phthalates are known or likely to cause reproductive issues (e.g. decreased sperm count, decreased ovarian reserve, infertility), decreased anogenital distance, preterm birth and metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance and diabetes. Phthalates are suspected to be related to spontaneous miscarriage and neurodevelopmental harms such as ADHD.⁶

Reducing the use of scented products can decrease exposure to phthalates, such as opting for laundry detergents or personal care products with the label “fragrance-free” on them. In a study done on Taiwanese females in 2015, frequent hand-washing, reducing shampoo use, and not drinking from plastic cups significantly lowered urinary phthalate levels.⁷

Bisphenols are found in polycarbonate plastic products (e.g., water bottles, food-storage containers and packaging, eyeglasses), epoxy resin liners of aluminum cans as well as other consumer goods.

Probably one of the most well-known of the endocrine-disrupting chemicals, bisphenols (or BPA) are found to be likely to cause adverse effects on ovarian development and function, impaired neurodevelopment, metabolic abnormalities and immune system abnormalities.

Because of the widespread negative coverage of BPA, BPA is starting to be phased out of consumer products; unfortunately, BPA is replaced with similarly toxic materials like bisphenol S or bisphenol F, and are labelled “BPA-free”.

Similarly to the EDCs above, general measures to reduce exposure include frequent hand-washing and frequent vacuuming and cleaning of the house. Reducing the use of plastic food containers in heating and storing food/water is also important.

Specific to bisphenols, reducing intake of canned food (as bisphenols may line the inside of cans) can reduce exposure. As paper receipts often contain BPA in them, it is advisable to wash your hands after handling receipts. Dental guards or retainers made of polycarbonate may also contain bisphenols, so if you use them and they break or erode, be sure to replace them and ask for BPA-free alternatives.

Flame retardants can be found in consumer products (e.g., electronics, furniture, mattresses, children’s products), amongst other items. There are several types of flame retardants, namely, those made with chlorine or bromide (halogenated flame retardants), or phosphorus-based. These chemicals often break off and form part of indoor dust.

Flame retardants are likely to cause impaired neurodevelopment and are suspected to cause altered thyroid function in newborns and reproductive toxicity as well.⁸

To reduce indoor dust, vacuum frequently, wipe surfaces with a mop, and clean dusty surfaces with a damp cloth. Selecting “flame-retardant” free furniture is ideal, but often, it is difficult to figure out which sofa or which mattress is actually free of flame retardants. When selecting furniture or toys, furniture and children’s products filled with polyester or wool instead of foam are less likely to contain added flame retardants.⁹ And finally, washing your hands frequently (especially before meals or when coming in contact with food) will get dust (and the EDCs that it contains) off your hands.

Pesticide residue can be found in food and drinking water and insecticides (e.g. cockroach spray or baits). In a 2025 study by the Centre for Food Safety in Hong Kong (the Second Hong Kong Total Diet Study), pesticide residues were predominantly found in plant-based food items, such as vegetables and fruits.

In Hong Kong, pesticide residues in vegetables and fruits are regulated under the Pesticide Residues in Food Regulation (Cap. 132CM), which sets Maximum Residue Limits (guided by WHO-backed Codex Alimentarius Commission) for each type of pesticide for fruits, vegetables and occasionally processed food.

From 2017-2019, 111 vegetable and fruit samples out of 72,583 food samples collected by the Centre for Food Safety (CFS) for testing of pesticide residues were found to be exceeding the local legal limits. The overall unsatisfactory rate was about 0.2%, which is comparable to food safety rates in countries like Canada and the European Union.10 11

Pesticides are known or likely to cause impaired neurodevelopment (e.g. low IQ) and reduced sperm quality. They are suspected to cause increased susceptibility to childhood cancers (e.g. leukaemia and brain tumours), testicular cancer and impaired foetal growth.12

To reduce exposure to pesticides, wash produce such as fruits and vegetables under running water to remove surface residue. For certain produce such as apples, pumpkins and potatoes, peeling the skin off will also remove surface residue. Some pesticides are, however, absorbed into the body of the plant itself. To avoid these types of pesticide exposure, buying organic produce, when feasible, is an option.

In conclusion, EDCs are prevalent all around the world and are unavoidable (some of the abovementioned chemicals have also been detected in the North and South Poles). It is regrettable that, unlike medical drugs, which are tested for safety prior to being released on the market, chemicals used in commercial products are not being put through the same vigorous testing, though many of them have been proven, belatedly, to have adverse health effects. On an individual level, the most practical measures we can take is to educate ourselves on potential sources of exposure and limit exposure through the lifestyle measures above. With increased public awareness, hopefully more steps will be taken on a policy level to limit the use of EDCs.

1. _{Xu, Longyao & Hu, Yu & Zhu, Qingqing & Liao, Chunyang & Jiang, Guibin. (2021). Several typical endocrine-disrupting chemicals in human urine from general population in China: Regional and demographic-related differences in exposure risk. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 424. 127489. 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127489.}
2. _{Woodruff, Tracey. (2024). Health Effects of Fossil Fuel-Derived Endocrine Disruptors. The New England journal of medicine. 390. 922-933. 10.1056/NEJMra2300476.}
3. _{WSD - No consensus of guideline / standard values for PFAS internationally. (n.d.). https://www.wsd.gov.hk/en/core-businesses/water-quality/emerging-contaminants/pfas/how-are-pfas-regulated/index.html}
4. _{LCQ22: Non-plastic disposable tableware. (n.d.). https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202405/08/P2024050800233.htm}
5. _{Reducing PFAS in Your Drinking Water with a Home Filter | US EPA. (2025, August 7). US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/cleanups/reducing-pfas-your-drinking-water-home-filter}
6. _{Woodruff, Tracey. (2024). Health Effects of Fossil Fuel-Derived Endocrine Disruptors. The New England journal of medicine. 390. 922-933. 10.1056/NEJMra2300476.}
7. _{Chen, Chung-Yu & Chou, Yen-Yin & Lin, Shio-Jean & Lee, Ching Chang. (2015). Developing an intervention strategy to reduce phthalate exposure in Taiwanese girls. The Science of the total environment. 517C. 125-131. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.021.}
8. _{Woodruff, Tracey. (2024). Health Effects of Fossil Fuel-Derived Endocrine Disruptors. The New England journal of medicine. 390. 922-933. 10.1056/NEJMra2300476.}
9. _{Flame Retardants - Green Science Policy Institute. (n.d.). Green Science Policy. https://greensciencepolicy.org/harmful-chemicals/flame-retardants/}
10. _{Pesticide residues in Vegetables and fruits Part I:Trends in Pesticide Residues Food poisoning risk in the past three decades. (2018, September 29). https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_127_02.html}
11. _{Pesticide residues in vegetables available in local markets. (2019, August 23). https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_155_01.html}
12. _{Woodruff, Tracey. (2024). Health Effects of Fossil Fuel-Derived Endocrine Disruptors. The New England journal of medicine. 390. 922-933. 10.1056/NEJMra2300476.}